Programming Fundamentals  
Lecture 01 Introduction to Programming  
Edirlei Soares de Lima  
<edirlei.lima@universidadeeuropeia.pt>  
Computer Programs  
Programs are created to solve problems and perform specific  
tasks.  
Example: collect the items to complete the level  
Player  
Items  
Bag  
Bag slots:  
Problem: how to know when the player has completed the level?  
Machine Code  
A computer's central processing unit (CPU) only runs machine  
code.  
Machine code is a strictly numerical language and is intended to run as  
fast as possible.  
The instructions causes the CPU to perform specific task, such  
arithmetic operations and registry manipulations.  
Machine code is represented by sequences of binary digits.  
Exemple:  
Adding the registers 1 and 2  
and placing the result in  
register 6.  
Jumping to the address 1024  
High-Level Programming Languages  
While it is possible to write programs directly in machine  
code, it is very complex to manage individual bits and  
calculate numerical addresses manually.  
Today, the vast majority of programs are written in high-level  
programming languages.  
In a high-level language, instead of dealing with registers and  
memory addresses, programmers manipulate variables,  
functions, loops, boolean expressions, arrays, etc.  
Popular Programming Languages  
Example of Code in Lua  
local cels  
local fahr  
io.write("Temperature in Celsius: ")  
cels = io.read()  
fahr = 1.8 * cels + 32  
io.write("Temperature in Fahrenheit: ", fahr, "\n")  
Compilation Process  
Programs written in high-level languages cannot be directly  
executed in the CPU.  
Before running the code, it must be translated to machine code.  
This task (compilation) is performed by a program called  
compiler.  
Examples of compiled languages:  
C, C++, Basic, Pascal, …  
Interpreted Programming Languages  
Not all programming languages are compiled. Some of them  
are interpreted.  
An interpreted language uses an interpreter program to  
execute the code directly, translating each statement into a  
sequence of one or more operations that are performed by  
the interpreter.  
Examples of interpreted languages:  
Lua, Java, JavaScript, Python, PHP, …  
Development Cycle (Compiled)  
Program  
Text Editor  
Code  
Development  
Compiler  
Compilation  
Program  
Output  
Test  
Development Cycle (Interpreted)  
Program  
Text Editor  
Code  
Development  
Interpreter  
Output  
Test  
Lua Programming Language  
Lua is a powerful, efficient, lightweight,  
embeddable scripting language.  
It supports procedural programming, object-oriented  
programming, functional programming, ...  
In video game development, Lua is one of the most  
popular scripting language for game programming.  
Some games that use Lua: World of Warcraft, Civilization  
V, Far Cry, Angry Birds, Grim Fandango, Dota 2, ...  
Lua is designed, implemented, and maintained by  
a team of researchers at PUC-Rio in Brazil.  
Why choose Lua?  
Lua is a proven, robust language:  
Has been used in many industrial applications (e.g.: Adobe's Photoshop  
Lightroom) and games (e.g.: World of Warcraft and Angry Birds).  
Is the leading scripting language in games and won the Front Line  
Award 2011 from the Game Developers Magazine.  
Has a solid reference manual and several books.  
Lua is fast:  
Lua has a deserved reputation for performance. Several benchmarks  
show Lua as the fastest language in the realm of interpreted scripting  
languages.  
Why choose Lua?  
Lua is portable:  
is distributed in a small package and builds out-of-the-box in all  
platforms that have a standard C compiler.  
Lua runs on Unix, Windows, mobile devices (Android, iOS, BREW,  
Symbian, Windows Phone), on embedded microprocessors, etc.  
Lua is embeddable:  
Lua can be easily embedded into other applications. Lua API allows  
strong and easy integration with code written in other languages.  
Lua is free:  
Lua is a free open-source software that can be used for any purpose,  
including commercial purposes, at absolutely no cost.  
Variables and Constants  
Variables and constants are the basic elements  
manipulated by a program.  
Constant is a fixed value that doesn’t change during  
the execution of a program.  
ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ1 + ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ2  
ꢁꢂꢃꢄꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ =  
2
Contant value  
Variables  
Variable is a space in the memory of the computer that is  
reserved to store a specific type of data.  
Containers where we can store information (numbers, text, etc.)  
Variables have names so they can be referenced in the code  
and have their values accessed or changed when necessary.  
Variable Grade1  
Variable Grade2  
ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ1 + ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ2  
ꢁꢂꢃꢄꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ =  
2
Variable FinalGrade  
Variables  
The content of a variable can change during the execution of a  
program.  
Although different values can be assigned to the same variable,  
it can only store one value at a time.  
“7.5”  
“8.0”  
ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ1 + ꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ2  
ꢁꢂꢃꢄꢅꢆꢃꢇꢈ =  
2
“7.75”  
Variables  
Variables have:  
Name: used to refer to the variable in the code;  
Name restrictions: is not allowed to start the name of variable with a number (0-9),  
some special characters are not allowed in the names (*, -, /, +, ...), and some  
reserved word can not be used as well (if, for, while, ...).  
Type: defines the set of values that can be stored in the variable;  
Value: the value stored;  
Variables must be:  
Declared: What is the name and what is the type of the variable?  
Initialized: What is the initial value of the variable?  
Variables in Lua  
Lua is a dynamically typed language. This means that when a  
variable is declared, its type doesn’t need to be specified.  
There are no type definitions in Lua;  
Each value carries its own type.  
Type  
Examples of Values  
number  
string  
0, 1, 2.3, -2.3  
hi”, “hello world”,test 123”, “”  
true, false  
boolean  
function  
table  
0x1234567  
0x2345678  
thread  
userdata  
nil  
0x3456789  
0x4567890  
nil  
Declaring Variables in Lua  
Local variables must be explicitly declared;  
More than one variable can be declared at a time;  
Variables can be used without being declared (global variables);  
Examples:  
local a -- declares a local variable called a  
local b -- declares a local variable called b  
local d, e -- declares two local variables (a and b)  
local d = 5 -- declares and initializes the variable d  
f = 10 -- initializes a global variable f  
Arithmetic Operators  
Arithmetic Operators are used to perform arithmetic  
operations with variables and constants.  
Operation  
Symbol  
Examples:  
assignment operator  
Addition  
+
-
total = price * quantity  
final_grade = (grade1 + grade2)/2  
result = 3 * (1 - 2) + 4 * 2  
res = 4 % 2  
Subtraction  
Multiplication  
Division  
*
/
Remainder or modulus  
Exponentiation  
%
^
res = b ^ 2  
Input and Output Functions  
Function writeof the io” module: is used to write  
data to the output console.  
io.write(constants/variables/expressions...)  
io.write(33)  
Output:  
33  
local myVar = 5  
io.write("Value = ", 33, " Total = ", 33 + 40, " Var = ", myVar)  
Output:  
Valor = 33 Total = 73 Var = 5  
Input and Output Functions  
Text output:  
io.write("Programming Fundamentals\nwith Lua")  
Output:  
Programming Fundamentals  
with Lua  
Input and Output Functions  
Function readof the io” module: is used to read data from  
the console (keyboard input).  
io.read()  
local n  
n = io.read()  
The value typed by the user is stored in the variable n  
Important: the input value is always a string (text).  
Sometimes you need to convert the value to a number type  
with the function tonumber:  
local n  
n = tonumber(io.read())  
Example 1  
Problem: read two numbers and show the sum of the numbers.  
local number1, number2, result  
io.write("First number: ")  
number1 = io.read()  
In this case, we don’t need to  
convert the values to numbers  
because arithmetic operators  
automatically convert them.  
io.write("Second number: ")  
number2 = io.read()  
result = number1 + number2  
io.write("The sum is ", result)  
Lua Programming - Example  
Comments:  
-- Program to convert temperatures from Celsius to Fahrenheit  
local cels -- variable to store the temperature in Celsius  
local fahr -- variable to store the temperature in Fahrenheit  
io.write("Temperature in Celsius: ")  
cels = io.read() -- read the temperature in Celsius  
fahr = 1.8 * cels + 32 -- convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit  
-- Show the temperature in Fahrenheit  
io.write("Temperature in Fahrenheit: ", fahr, "\n")  
Exercise 1  
a) Write a program that converts kilometers per hour to miles  
per hour (1 km/h is equal to 0.6213711922 mi/h).  
b) Write a program that calculates the perimeter of a rectangle  
(ꢉ = 2 ꢄꢈꢂꢊꢋꢌ + ꢍꢁꢇꢌꢋ ).  
c) Write a program that takes hours and minutes as input, and  
calculates the total number of minutes.  
d) Write a program that takes minutes as input, and displays  
the total number of hours and minutes.  
Functions  
A function is a block of code with a name that can be executed  
at other points in the code.  
It may have parameters  
It may return a result  
Functions are important to:  
Simplify and organize the code (modularization);  
Avoid repetitions of code;  
Extend the programming language;  
Once declared, we can just use them (abstraction)  
Functions in Lua  
A Lua program cannot have two  
functions with the same name.  
function function_name(parameter1, parameter2)  
local variables  
Lua instructions  
return  
If a function doesn’t have  
end  
parameters, we just use: ()  
Block of code  
Functions in Lua Example  
function celsius_fahrenheit(tc)  
local f  
f = 1.8 * tc + 32  
return f  
end  
local cels, fahr  
io.write("Temperatura in Celsius: ")  
cels = io.read()  
fahr = celsius_fahrenheit(cels)  
io.write("Temperature in Fahrenheit: ", fahr)  
We can use the functioncelsius_fahrenheit in any other  
program where this conversion may be needed.  
Parameters and Return Values  
Example:  
function celsius_fahrenheit(tc)  
Only one input parameter.  
Example of function with two parameters:  
Volume of a cylinder:  
function volume_cylinder(r, h)  
local v  
v = math.pi * (r ^ 2) * h  
return v  
end  
Two input parameters  
Parameters and Return Values  
function volume_cylinder(r, h)  
local v  
v = math.pi * (r ^ 2) * h  
return v  
end  
local radius, height, volume  
io.write("Radius of the cylinder: ")  
radius = io.read()  
io.write("Height of the cylinder: ")  
height = io.read()  
volume = volume_cylinder(radius, height)  
io.write("Volume of the cylinder: ", volume)  
Scope of Variables  
The scope of a variable is the region of the program where the  
variable is valid/exist.  
A variable declared inside the block of code of a function with  
the keyword “local” is a local variable:  
The variable is only valid inside the block of code of the function  
where it was declared.  
When the execution of the function ends, the memory area reserved  
to store local variables is automatically released, so the program can  
no longer access those variables.  
Scope of Variables  
Local variable:  
A function can be executed multiple times.  
For each execution, new memory areas for local variables are  
automatically reserved. When the function ends, the memory is  
automatically released.  
Local variables declared inside the block of code of a  
function are not valid in other functions.  
The parameters of a function are also local variables that  
are only valid in the block of code of the function.  
Scope of Variables  
function volume_cylinder(radius, height)  
local volume  
volume = math.pi * (radius ^ 2) * height  
return volume  
end  
Variables with the same  
name, but with different  
scopes.  
local radius, height, volume  
io.write("Radius of the cylinder: ")  
radius = io.read()  
io.write("Height of the cylinder: ")  
height = io.read()  
volume = volume_cylinder(radius, height)  
io.write("Volume of the cylinder: ", volume)  
Scope of Variables  
Functions receive values as parameters and return values (not variables).  
The name of the variables may be the same, but they are different  
variables.  
function doble_value(x)  
x = x * 2  
return x  
end  
Output: 10.0  
local x = 5.0  
io.write(doble_value(x))  
io.write(x)  
Output: 5.0  
Exercise 2  
2
) Rewrite the first exercises using functions:  
a) Write a program that converts kilometers per hour to miles per hour  
(
1 km/h is equal to 0.6213711922 mi/h).  
b) Write a program that calculates the perimeter of a rectangle ( =  
ꢄꢈꢂꢊꢋꢌ + ꢍꢁꢇꢌꢋ ).  
2
c) Write a program that takes hours and minutes as input, and  
calculates the total number of minutes.  
d) Write a program that takes minutes as input, and display the total  
number of hours and minutes.  
Extra Exercises: https://edirlei.com/aulas/gameprog/ExtraExercisesLua.pdf (optional)